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106                                              Gianmarco Ingrosso et al.


          4.2 Current Conservation Measures
          Although not legally binding, the Barcelona Convention’s Action plan
          adopted in 2008 for the conservation of coralligenous outcrops and other
          calcareous bioconcretions in the Mediterranean Sea prescribes that
          “coralligenous/mae ¨rl assemblages should be granted legal protection at the
          same level as P. oceanica meadows” (UNEP-MAP-RAC/SPA, 2008, 2017).
          Coralligenous outcrops also appear in the EU Habitats Directive (under hab-
          itat type 1170 “Reefs”), and in the Bern Convention. Two mae ¨rl-forming
          Mediterranean species, Lithothamnion corallioides (P. Crouan & H. Crouan)
          P. Crouan & H. Crouan and Phymatolithon calcareum (Pallas) W.H. Adey &
          D.L. McKibbin ex Woelkering & L.M. Irvine, are included in Annex V of
          the Habitats Directive. Finally, under European law, destructive fishing is
          prohibited over Mediterranean coralligenous and mae ¨rl bottoms. The sub-
          stantial lack of relevant geospatial data on these habitats, however, significantly
          hinders the effective implementation of these policies.
             Bioconstructions are a potential proxy for monitoring the marine environ-
          mental quality according to the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive
          (MSFD) 2008/56/EC (European Community, 2008), which requires the
          maintenance and restoration of marine biodiversity and ecosystem function-
          ing. Bioconstructions host species of Community interest, such as the red
          coral C. rubrum, listed in Annex V of the EU Habitats Directive and other
          species, including commercial sponges, such as Spongia officinalis Linnaeus,
          1759 and Spongia lamella (Schulze, 1879), gorgonians P. clavata, the gold coral
          Savalia savaglia (Bertoloni, 1819) and, deeper, the black corals A. subpinnata,
          A. dichotoma, P. larix and Leiopathes glaberrima (Esper, 1788). Black corals have
          been included in Annex II (List of Endangered or Threatened Species) of the
          Barcelona Convention; their trade is regulated by CITES (Convention on
          International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and have
          been listed as “least concern” in accordance with the IUCN Italian Commit-
          tee, with the exception of L. glaberrima, commonly associated to deep white
          coral reefs, listed as “endangered” with special reference to its exceptional
          millennial longevity, hence high vulnerability (Bo et al., 2015).
             A total of 211 sessile megabenthic species have been recorded on the
          coralligenous reefs of Liguria, sponges being the richest group. Twelve bio-
          logical communities were identified: eight of them correspond to habitats
          described in the classification of the European Nature Information System
          (EUNIS) (Tunesi et al., 2006): (1) association with C. zosteroides (EUNIS
          equivalent: A4.261); (2) association with Mesophyllum lichenoides (J. Ellis)
          Me. Lemoine (A4.266); (3) facies with E. cavolini (A4.269); (4) facies with
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