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114 Gianmarco Ingrosso et al.

fans, occurred during periods of deepening of the mixed layer (Rivetti et al.,
2014), but the impact on the bioconstructing algae is still poorly known.
The avoidance of direct stress on biogenic structures as a result of protection
policies leads to healthier habitats that, hopefully, will better respond to
global stressors such as warming and acidification.
In the case of impacts that alter the conditions of a given habitat, Jones et al.
(2018) suggest two restoration options: passive restoration, i.e., the reestab-
lishment of natural conditions with no further intervention, and removal of
impacts; and active restoration that might be attempted if passive restoration
does not occur, even if it is difficult to conceive a human-driven reestab-
lishment of communities such as coralligenous ones, whose construction
requires millennia. For some bioconstructions, however, restoration through
transplants (e.g. of colonies of A. calycularis) might be a noticeable exception.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR)
within the scientific research program of national interest “Coastal bioconstructions:
structures, functions, and management” (PRIN 2010-11 GA No. 2010Z8HJ5M), the
Flagship Project RITMARE—“Ricerca ITaliana per il MARE (2012–2016)”, the project
BIOMAP—BIOcostruzioni MArine in Puglia (PO FESR 2007/2013, ASSE IV. Linea
4.4, Puglia Region, Italy), the EU FP7 CoCoNet project—“Towards COast to COast
NETworks of marine protected areas (from the shore to the high and deep sea), coupled
with sea-based wind energy potential” (GA No. 287844), the Commission of the
European Union (DG ENV) through the project “Achieving coherent networks of
marine protected areas (MPAs): analysis of the situation in the Mediterranean Sea”(call for
tender ENV.C2/FRA/2016/0017—771344) and the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research for the project MERCES (Grant Agreement No. 689518, http://www.merces-
project.eu). We are thankful to the following people for their precious help and for providing
unpublished in situ observations: Nadia Abdelahad, Davide Agnetta, Adriana Alagna, Cinzia
Alessi, Fabrizio Atzori, Jamila Bensouissi, Enrico Cecchi, Giovanni D’Anna, Emanuela
Claudia La Marca, Federica Fava, Tomas Vega Fernandez, Giulio Franzitta, Vincenzo
Maximiliano Giacalone, Michele Gristina, Maja Krzelj, Vesna Macic, Davide Moccia, Luigi
Piazzi, Maria Salomidi, Daniela Scala, Giovanni Spanedda, Antonio Terlizzi. Daniele Ven-
tura provided the photo for the realization of the Sabellaria reef figure. Charles Sheppard is
also kindly acknowledged for constructive review of the manuscript.

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