Page 2 - Bennett_DiFranco_alii2018

2of10 BENNETT ET AL.

2014). What factors then influence local support for conser- Much of the previous literature examining perceptions
vation? Attitudes toward and support for conservation are of conservation uses qualitative methods and is based on
influenced by social norms (Jones, Andriamarovololona, & individual case studies. The current study aimed to build on
Hockley, 2008), demographic factors and socioeconomic sta- the solid foundation and insights provided by these previous
tus (Arjunan, Holmes, Puyravaud, & Davidar, 2006; Heinen research efforts by (1) developing quantitative measures for
& Shrivastava 2009), dependence on resources (Cinner, Sut- perceptions of ecological effectiveness, social impacts, and
ton, & Bond, 2007; Webb, Mailiao, & Siar, 2004), presence good governance of conservation and (2) examining the
of livelihood alternatives (Gelcich & Donlan 2015; McClana- relationship between these measures and levels of support
han, Cinner, Kamakuru, Abunge, & Ndagala, 2008), place for conservation. Using data collected from a survey of
attachment (Cundill, Bezerra, De Vos, & Ntingana, 2017; small-scale fishermen in 11 marine protected areas (MPAs)
Morishige et al., 2018), institutions and governance (Bennett across six countries in the Mediterranean Sea, this paper
& Dearden 2014; Sommerville, Jones, Rahajaharison, & examines how perceptions of ecological effectiveness, social
Milner-Gulland, 2010), and values (Chan et al., 2016). Local impacts, and good governance are associated with small-scale
people's perceptions of different factors related to a conserva- fishermen's levels of support for MPAs.
tion initiative can also influence attitudes, acceptability, and
levels of support (Bennett, 2016; Sommerville et al., 2010).
2 METHODS
Perceptions can be defined as “the way an individual
observes, understands, interprets, and evaluates a referent
2.1 Study area
object, action, experience, individual, policy, or outcome”
(Bennett, 2016, p. 585). There are four categories of stake- The Mediterranean Sea, the largest inland sea in the world,
holder perceptions that might influence local support for is a highly diverse marine ecosystem and biodiversity hotspot
conservation—perceptions of ecological effectiveness, social (Coll et al., 2010). Mediterranean marine ecosystems are also
impacts, good governance, and management (Bennett, 2016). among the most impacted by human development in the world
While local people's perceptions of ecological conditions may (Halpern et al., 2008). This means that ecological and fisheries
or may not always be accurate depending on their level of values are threatened by a variety of activities, including over-
expertise and local knowledge (Christie, 2005; Yasué, Kauf- fishing, shipping, tourism, and coastal development. There
man, & Vincent, 2010), they will formulate opinions nonethe- are an estimated 92,700 fishing vessels in the Mediterranean
less of the extent to which conservation improves habitats, and Black Sea, employing ¼ million people, and contributing
enhances ecosystem functioning, augments productivity, and $3.09 billion in landed value (FAO, 2016). Small-scale fish-
increases the biomass and size of individual species (Cin- eries account for 80% of the fleet, 60% of those employed,
ner et al., 2014; Leleu et al., 2012; Rönnbäck, Crona, & and produce 20% of landed value (FAO, 2016). As much
Ingwall, 2007). Local people can also experience the social as ∼85% of fish stocks are harvested at biologically unsus-
impacts of conservation initiatives, including on economic, tainable levels (FAO, 2016). One common management tool
social, cultural, health, physical, or political empowerment increasingly used across jurisdictions is MPAs. In 2016, there
domains of human well-being (Biedenweg, Stiles, & Well- were a total of 1,231 MPAs covering 7.14% of the Mediter-
man, 2016; Breslow et al. 2016; Jones, McGinlay, & Dimi- ranean Sea (MedPAN, 2016). Only 76 MPAs include one or
trakopoulos, 2017; Kaplan-Hallam & Bennett 2017; Leisher, more fully protected areas, with 50% of these areas being less
2
Samberg, Van Buekering, & Sanjayan, 2013). Governance than 1 km (Di Franco et al., 2018). As a result, only 0.04% of
refers to the policies, institutions, and processes that shape the area is covered by fully protected MPAs (PISCO & UNS,
who makes decisions and how decisions are made in con- 2016).
servation planning and management (Bennett & Satterfield We investigated small-scale fishing communities operating
2018; Lockwood, 2010). Stakeholders can evaluate “good inside or close to 11 MPAs in six countries (Figure 1). The
governance” based on normative principles such as recog- MPAs were established between 1988 and 2003, ranged in
nition, transparency, accountability, communication, partici- size from 90 to 76,000 ha, and were between 2.7% and 100%
pation, consultation, conflict management, trust, rule of law, no take (see Table 1). Key informants (e.g., MPA managers
legitimacy, coordination, and collaboration (Bennett & Sat- or community leaders) in each area estimated that there were
terfield 2018; Borrini-Feyerabend & Hill 2015; Lockwood, between 5 and 40 small-scale fishers living in communities
2010). Finally, local people can formulate judgments about near or within the MPAs.
the status, effectiveness, and appropriateness of management
resources, plans, and actions based on their perceptions (Ben-
2.2 Survey design and administration
nett, 2016; Ferse, Manez Costa, Manez, Adhuri, & Glaser,
2010; Hockings, Stolton, Leverington, Dudley, & Courrau, We designed and administered a quantitative survey to small-
2006). scale fishermen in communities within or near the MPAs. The