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Cultural and socio-economic factors in marine protected areas 123

Spain peripheral zone (about 50%), where many activities are
permitted. Tabarca Marine Reserve is the only protected area
In Spain there is a distinction between marine reserves which
in the Spanish Mediterranean around an inhabited island. In
are aimed mainly at fisheries enhancement and marine parks,
contrast to the Medes Islands, diving in the Reserve was
aimed at protecting species and ecosystems. However, their
severely limited from the start to 50 divers per day (Ramos et
management plans are similar. Both can be considered
al. 1992) and is now limited to 30 divers per year as a result
multiple-use areas, protecting different zones differently
of opposition from Tabarca fishers to divers. The number of
(Salm & Clark 1984) and the philosophy of the Biosphere
diving licences issued in Tabarca multiplied each year from
Reserves of the MAB Programme (UNESCO 1974) has been
the inception of the Reserve up to 1993, when it reached
adopted, with the three basic functions of conservation, logis-
almost 2000 licences per year, with the number stabilizing or
tics and development. In this sense, the first operative marine
declining slightly thereafter due to restrictions placed on
reserve in Spain, Tabarca Island, although formerly created
diving by the Reserve Management Commission.
to enhance exploited populations, has served as an example to
In spite of the huge difference between Tabarca and
the other MPAs, as its protection is compatible with the
Medes in the number of divers, diving is seasonal in both
rational exploitation of small-scale fishing and ‘soft’ tourism
protected areas, with a large number of divers between April
(Ramos 1991b). Socio-economic studies are rare and the data
and November. Visitors to the island constantly increased
available are limited to the changes in the number and
from 1983, before the establishment of the Reserve, up to
composition of visitors and divers and the development of
1998. In the same period, a doubling in the number of restau-
activities in some of the MPAs since the implementation.
rants and souvenir shops was observed (8 restaurants in 1985
and 14 in 1995; RANDOM 1998). Although Albeza et al.
Medes Islands
(1994) report that these visitors have had a low impact on the
The Medes Islands were protected in 1983 as a no-fishing
Marine Reserve since most of them (95%) stay on the beach
area and in the first few years diving was not controlled. The
and in the village, the impact of visitors has been observed on
increase in diving activities was spectacular, reaching 2000
the mooring areas over Posidonia oceanica beds (Martinez et
divers per day and more than 200 000 divers per year (Ribera
al. 1999). As regards the small-scale fishery, preliminary data
1992). A new law was introduced in 1990 which increased the
have shown an increase in the catch rates of some key species
size of the MPA and a maximum limit of 500 divers per day
(Dentex dentex, Sparus aurata and Epinephelus marginatus)
was established (about 50 000 dives per year). Economic
after the implementation of protection, in comparison with
activities in L’Estartit, the small village on the mainland
catches made in 1985 (Ramos et al. 1992). A more complete
opposite the Medes Islands, are exclusively related to tourism
study which includes data from 1987 to 1995 (Mas & Barcala
on the islands; these include diving centres, hotels, restau-
1997) confirms this pattern for D. dentex, E. marginatus (data
rants, snorkelling tours and glass-bottom boating. It has been
for S. aurata are not presented) and other species such as
estimated that all this economic activity represents a direct
Pagrus pagrus and Diplodus annularis. Other species do not
income of about US$7 million per year (Capellà et al. 1998).
present a clear pattern and the only one which has declined in
In 1996, 10 of the diving centres operating in the area had 125
catch is Sciaena umbra, despite its being one of the most
employees and 17 boats with a total capacity of 725 passen-
abundant species in the Reserve (Bayle & Ramos 1993). Mas
gers (each diving boat also containing an auxiliary pneumatic
and Barcala (1999) also report that catch per unit effort is
boat), representing an investment of US$3.6 million (Costa
higher in the vicinity of the Reserve. On the other hand, the
Brava Sub 1997). In L’Estartit, a reduction in the seasonality
turnover of the artisanal fleet of Tabarca has been the highest
of tourism has been observed when compared to other tourist
in the region since the creation of the Reserve (Sánchez
resorts in the area (Ribera 1992). In the Medes Islands inten-
Lizaso & Giner in press).
sive diving has damaged benthic organisms such as
A preliminary socio-economic study on Tabarca Marine
gorgonians, bryozoans and the Posidonia meadows (Sala et al.
Reserve (RANDOM 1998) shows that the population inhab-
1996; Zabala 1996). In Cap de Creus, near the Medes Islands,
iting the island increased from the establishment of the
the announcement of the creation of a marine park increased
village in 1769 up to 1920, after which there was a constant
the number of diving centres ( J. Romero, personal communi-
decrease until 1991. From 1991 to 1996, the number of resi-
cation March 1999).
dents on Tabarca Island increased. The same study shows
that, as a consequence of establishment of the Reserve, the
Tabarca number of fishers in Tabarca increased in recent years, with
Tabarca Marine Reserve was established in 1986. The 19 fishers in 1985 before the Reserve was established and
protected area is divided into three zones: (1) a core zone 23–5 in 1990–92.
(about 10% of the surface area), subject to the highest level of
protection; (2) a buffer zone (about 40%), with the same level Columbretes
of protection as the former but with permission given for The Columbretes islands are remote volcanic islands located
some professional fishing using selected methods (trap-nets 30 miles from the mainland. Since the creation of the Marine
and trawl-lines) and scuba diving; and (3) a multi-use or Reserve an increase in the inflow of recreational boats has