Page 9 - 4022883
P. 9
BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION 141 (2008) 699–709 707
thus actually carry the risk that positive effects from enforced sign better MPAs in response to the specific management
reserves can be masked by neutral/negative results from re- problems needed to be solved or purposes to be served and
serves characterized by scant enforcement. Consequently, it make well-informed decisions regarding the MPAs and re-
makes no sense to invest in sound sampling designs to test serves already established. As well, articulating clear objec-
for protection effects without assessing enforcement levels. tives for MPAs can help convert the vehement public
Such ‘blind assessments’ could, in fact, lead to the conclusion opposition usually encountered at the time of MPA establish-
that marine reserves are ecologically ineffective. This could in ment (especially by skeptical users like fishermen) into broad-
turn induce stakeholders and policy makers to dismiss MPAs er acceptance and better chances of success for MPAs.
and reserves as worthwhile conservation/management tools,
since the social conflicts generated by their creation would Acknowledgements
not be balanced by any apparent benefit.
This study was carried out in the framework of the national
Effects of protection on fish species and trophic groups research projects ‘Sistema Afrodite’ and ‘Venere’, funded by
were not detected at unenforced reserves (i.e. paper parks). ICRAM and CoNISMa, respectively. We wish to thank Laura
In some terrestrial tropical regions, however, even paper Verginella, Angelo Palmeri and Francesco Mura for their
parks were found to be successful in mitigating some human invaluable efforts during the field sampling at Miramare, Usti-
impacts (Rodriguez and Rodriguez-Clark, 2001). Our data, in ca and Tavolara, respectively, and Joachim Claudet for his
contrast, showed that no evidence of positive effects of such useful suggestions.
paper reserves (see also Bearzi, 2007). Our impression is that
at sea, the concept of restricting human activities by marine REFERENCES
area (Russ and Zeller, 2003) has not gained cultural accep-
tance (Clark, 1981). Local communities opposing marine re- Agardy, T., Bridgewater, P., Crosby, M.P., Day, J., Dayton, P.K.,
serves, in addition, often exert a strong pressure on local Kenchington, R., Laffolley, D., McConney, P., Murray, P.A., Parks,
policy-makers. This generally results in scant effort by local J.E., Peau, L., 2003. Dangerous targets? Unresolved issues and
maritime police-forces and/or reserve personnel patrolling ideological clashes around marine protected areas. Aquatic
the reserves, and, therefore in continued or even increased Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13, 353–367.
illegal fishing within the paper parks. In Italy, MPAs are usu-
ally underfunded and understaffed, which strongly affects Bearzi, G., 2007. Marine conservation on paper. Conservation
their governance and, in turn, their ecological effectiveness. Biology 21, 1–3.
However, those Italian marine reserves that were able to find
funds for improving staff and surveillance showed the most Bevilacqua, S., Terlizzi, A., Fraschetti, S., Russo, G.F., Boero, F.,
significant ecological responses. This seems a crucial point, 2006. Mitigating human disturbance: can protection influence
since the investment in enforcement may provide the great- trajectories of recovery in benthic assemblages? Journal of
est return on maintaining the ecological benefits of the re- Animal Ecology 75, 908–920.
serve to the fishery (Byers and Noonburg, 2007). Inadequate
public involvement and communication/education in the pro- Boero, F., Bussotti, S., D’Ambrosio, P., Fraschetti, S., Guidetti, P.,
cess of MPA development (e.g. selection, planning and man- Terlizzi, A., 2005. Biodiversita` ed aree marine protette. Biologia
agement) are also important issues that in Italy have been Marina Mediterranea 12, 1–22.
often neglected in the past. Public and stakeholder involve-
ment has been limited in most of the 15 reserves studied. This Byers, J.E., Noonburg, E.G., 2007. Poaching, enforcement, and
lack of community participation undoubtedly leads to numer- the efficacy of marine reserves. Ecological Applications 17,
ous conflicts and disapproval by locals about the establish- 1851–1857.
ment of marine reserves, does not increase the perceived
legitimacy of decisions, and lowers compliance with restric- CIESM, 1999. Scientific design and monitoring of Mediterranean
tions (Friedlander et al., 2003). marine protected areas. Workshop Series No. 8.
All the above issues suggest the need for a new strategy for Clark, C.W., 1981. Fisheries resources and fishing rights. Report of
MPAs at national level, where major efforts and funds are in- the ACMRR working party on the scientific basis of
vested in informing the public and promoting participation in determining management measures. FAO Fisheries Report No.
the decision-making process. Instead of decreeing even more 236, FAO, Rome.
paper parks, Italy should concentrate on enforcing regula-
tions within the existing MPAs and equipping them with sur- Claudet, J., Pelletier, D., Jouvenel, J.Y., Bachet, F., Galzin, R., 2006.
veillance personnel devoted to this task. Assessing the effects of a marine protected area (MPA) on a
reef fish assemblage in a northwestern Mediterranean marine
In conclusion, this study provides evidence that reserves reserve: identifying community-based indicators. Biological
established along the coasts of Italy can be ecologically effec- Conservation 130, 249–369.
tive, provided that compliance is good and enforcement,
where needed, is effective. Well-enforced reserves not only Coˆ te´ , I.M., Mosquera, I., Reynolds, J.D., 2001. Effects of marine
can meet ecological and socio-economical objectives, they reserves characteristics on the protection of fish populations:
can also help promote creation of new reserves (Agardy a meta-analysis. Journal of Fish Biology 59, 178–189.
et al., 2003; Friedlander et al., 2003). A better understanding
of how compliance and enforcement can affect ecological Dayton, P.K., Thrush, S.F., Agardy, T.M., Hofman, R.J., 1995.
outcomes can help resource managers and policy-makers de- Environmental effects of marine fishing. Aquatic
Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 5,
205–232.
Denny, C.M., Babcock, R.C., 2004. Do partial marine reserves
protect reef fish assemblages? Biological Conservation 116,
119–129.
Dufour, F., Guidetti, P., Francour, P., 2007. Comparaison des
inventaires de poissons dans les aires marines prote´ ge´ es de
Me´ diterrane´ e: influence de la surface et de l’anciennete´ .
Cybium 31, 19–31.
