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Circannual variation in movement patterns of the Black Kite
(Milvus migrans migrans): a review

Panuccio M. ,1,2,4 Agostini N. ,1,2,4 Mellone U.2,3 , Bogliani G.1,4

1 University of Pavia,“Dipartimento di Biologia Animale”,Via Ferrata 1, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
2 MEDRAPTORS (Mediterranean Raptor Migration Network) via Mario Fioretti 18, 00152
Rome, Italy - www.raptormigration.org
3 Estación Biológica Terra Natura, Instituto Universitario de Investigación
CIBIO, University of Alicante;Apdo. 99. E– 03080;Alicante (Spain).
4 University of Pavia,“DISTA – Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e dell’Ambiente”,Via Ferrata 9,
27100 Pavia, Italy.

Abstract: The nominal subspecies of the Black Kite is a summer resident in Europe and Asia that winters
mostly in western Africa although numbers of birds wintering in the Mediterranean area are increasing.
During migrations, tens of thousands are observed migrating through the Strait of Gibraltar between Spain
and Morocco, along the eastern side of the Black Sea and in the Middle-East, while substantial numbers cross
the central Mediterranean and the Bosphorus. This paper provides a review of research concerning migration
and its relationship with foraging behaviour in a circannual perspective. In particular research made both by
satellite tracking and by visual observations suggests a more evident time-selected migration during autumn
rather than spring. Differences in timing occurring among different flyways could be explained either by
different rates of intra-specific competition in areas with different breeding density and/or by different distances
between wintering and breeding grounds.

The Black Kite has a wide distribution in all grounds are located mostly in Africa south of
the Paleartic, Afro-Malagasy, Indomalayan and Sahara Desert but also in the Middle-East (Shirihai
Australasian, but is absent in the New World et al. 2000, Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001);
(Neartic and Neotropic). At least six subspecies are birds breeding in central-western Europe winter
known (Cramp and Simmons 1980). Among them mostly in Western Africa (Cramp and Simmons
two live in Africa and they are mostly residents or 1980, Mayburg and Meyburg 2009).
short-distance migrant: Milvus milvus aegyptius in Black Kites are opportunistic predators exploiting
the Nile Valley and in both coasts of Red Sea with unpredictable spatio-temporal concentrations
some individuals wintering in Sudan and coastal of food (Viñuela 2000, Sergio 2003a). This
Kenya. M. m. parasitus is widely distributed in species often breeds in loose colonies (Cramp and
sub-Saharan Africa, Comoros and Madagascar Simmons 1980) and it has been observed that
with strong intra-continental movements juvenile and adult survival is higher for individuals
(Cramp and Simmons 1980, Ferguson-Lees and born or living in high density areas, at least in some
Christie 2001). The nominal subspecies is almost populations (Forero et al. 2002).
entirely migratory and is distributed in Western The flight behaviour of this species during
Paleartic and in some areas of Central Asia. M. migration is half-way between broad winged
m. migrans (from hereafter called Black Kite) is raptors like buzzards, eagles and vultures and
a widespread summer visitor to Europe, with a relatively long wings raptors like Circus species. For
breeding population accounting less than 100000 this reason, Black Kites tend to use soaring flight
pairs (Birdlife International 2004). Its wintering over land during migration to minimize energetic

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