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G. D’Anna et al. / Marine Policy ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
tourists, especially people from Trapani, who come for one-day
trips in summer. Such seasonal tourism has involved Favignana
but neither Levanzo (which is smaller and with limited accom-
modation facilities) nor Marettimo (which is further offshore and
more isolated). The E-MPA management board did not do much to
address the impact of mass tourism, which is typically well ac-
cepted by restaurant and hotel owners although it is en-
vironmentally more impacting. Therefore the main forces driving
the conflicts between tourism and conservation are of economic
nature. Quality tourism i.e., year-round tourism linked to the
natural and cultural heritage, is perceived instead as a fully posi-
tive activity. Generally speaking, the conflicts generated by the
governance system have affected the E-MPA design and regula-
tions through the designation of the D zone, as well as related local
political decisions.
3.2. Intrasectoral conflicts
Intrasectoral conflicts are present inside each of the three main
sectoral activities: conservation, fishing and tourism (Fig. 3). The
conflicts within conservation are mainly generated by the com-
plexity of the institutional framework of the Egadi Archipelago as a
whole. Local (municipality, province), regional (fisheries and en-
vironment departments of the Sicilian government) and national
(ministry of the environment) authorities have partially over-
lapping yet sometimes disconnected roles. The legislative frame-
work and policies (Tables 1 and 2) are even more complex due to
the peculiar autonomous status of Sicily, which has jurisdictional
power over fisheries but not over MPAs. The Sicilian government
has also been charged to designate the Natura 2000 marine sites,
which were made consistent with existing MPAs. Further confu-
sion in the fisheries sector is given by the National and Local
Fisheries Management Plans, which are both active in the Egadi
area and depend on the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forests
and on the Sicilian Department of Fisheries, respectively. The in-
stitutional and legislative conflicts have been described by the
interviewees as a source of inefficiency and uncertainty that ne-
gatively affects the E-MPA governance.
The conflict between artisanal and trawl fishers is generated by
trawlers illegally entering the C zone and by competition for space
in the D zone. A harsh conflict between Egadi and Trapani artisanal
fishermen has also been generated by the E-MPA regulations that
allow fishing in the B zone only to Egadi residents and property
owners. For this reason the MPA is perceived as a privilege to Egadi
residents by some stakeholders, and fishers from Trapani feel
discriminated against, complaining about the longer distances
they have to travel and the poorer fishing grounds available out of
the B zone.
The conflict between artisanal and recreational fishers is
mainly generated by two illegal activities linked to recreational
fishing: (1) catches exceeding the 5 kg limit per person allowed by
the law, and (2) sale of the catch to restaurants. Both conducts are
strongly blamed by professional fishermen as unfair competition.
Among tourist activities, local residents who rent their small
boats suffer strong competition from the big charterers. People
living in Marettimo, who feel at a disadvantage due to the pre-
sence of a large A zone in their island and to their geographical
isolation, would like to hold the exclusive right to guide tourists in tive approach that caused general opposition from local people.
local area. Generally, passengers of the large excursion boats
coming from Trapani have a meal on board and do not even land
onshore, so they do not contribute to the local economy. The
boating business has grown to such a point that it is now regulated
by E-MPA executive regulations. Limits to the number of author-
ized boats and to the amount of passengers have been set in order
to reduce their environmental impact. Moreover many mooring
buoy fields have been established around the islands to reduce the
Please cite this article as: G. D’Anna, et al., Governance analysis in the Egadi Islands Marine Protected Area: A Mediterranean case study,
Mar. Policy (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.12.009i
7
impact of anchoring on the seabed.
4. The degree of integration
The degree of vertical and horizontal integration is still low in
the E-MPA. Conflicts among Italian, Sicilian and local fishery and
conservation management bodies still exist despite the existence
of technical and scientific boards at various levels (Fig. 3). Low
horizontal integration and high tensions characterise the re-
lationships among and within activities based on fisheries, con-
servation and tourism. However, starting in 2010 the Trapani LFMP
and the E-MPA regulations have included measures aimed at mi-
tigating both intra- and inter-sectoral conflicts. The Natura 2000
Egadi Islands Management Plan (DDG no. 434, Table 1), issued
between December 2012 and March 2013, is also expected to
contribute to the reduction of conflicts between conservation and
tourism. This plan contains conservation measures, such as con-
trols on human impacts, that interact in a synergistic and com-
plementary way with those of the MPA regulations. In particular it
aims at the (i) preservation of terrestrial and marine biodiversity,
(ii) sustainable use of natural resources and (iii) reduction of the
causes of degradation and decline of habitats and species. It also
provides incentives to promote low-impact economic activities in
the archipelago.
In the absence of an integrated approach to the management of
the E-MPA, incentives are the only mechanism that allows the
application of conservation measures. Economic incentives are the
most efficient because they raise big interests among stakeholders
(Tables 1, and 2). Some incentives compensate Egadi residents for
MPA-related restrictions, while others stimulate local productive
sectors to create job opportunities and alternative livelihoods
based on the sustainable use of natural and cultural resources.
Performance conditions and criteria requirements attached to li-
censes, as well as concessions on property rights, are also used as
incentives in the E-MPA. Incentives prompt the reduction of fish-
ing effort and related impacts and link tourist activities to the
respect for and sustainable use of natural resources.
The measures and incentives contained in the Natura 2000
Egadi Islands Management Plan, the Trapani LFMP and the E-MPA
regulations are not yet fully implemented. The difficulty of effec-
tive enforcement is mainly due to the complexity of the institu-
tional and legislative landscapes, the low influence of advisory
boards in decision-making and the lack of synergies among dif-
ferent sectors. These unsolved conflicts represent an important
deterrent for the achievement of the E-MPA priority objective
because they involve politicians, trade associations and managers
in a ‘game of roles’ aimed at defending the interests of single
sectors [7]. This lack of integration is common in Italian MPAs,
since only a few of them have attained an effective co-manage-
ment of natural resources based on positive synergies between
managers and stakeholders [8]. However, the degree of integration
in the E-MPA management is now slowly increasing according to
the interviewed stakeholders.
5. Participation, transparency and accountability
The E-MPA establishment was the result of a top-down im-
plementation of conservation initiatives through a non-participa-
Conservation measures triggered intra- and inter-sectoral conflicts
which in turn limited the efficiency of these initiatives. Starting in
2010, the MPA stakeholders were involved in some important
decisions, such as a revision of the zoning scheme aimed at de-
creasing the extension of the A zone in Marettimo and at creating