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Cultural and socio-economic factors in marine protected areas 111

(Fogarty 1999). In many MPAs outside of the ning of the 1990s in Italy (Cognetti 1991). There are
Mediterranean, the success of protective initiatives has often currently 33 Mediterranean MPAs in the EU, with 5 in
been found to be proportional to the degree of involvement of France, 11 in Spain, 16 in Italy and 1 in Greece, with a total
the local community (West 1989; West & Brechin 1991; Fiske protected area of 477 453 ha (Tables 1 & 2). Very few data
1992; Andersson & Ngazi 1995; Bersales 1996). Although the exist on the social, cultural and economic aspects of
involvement of the local community is pertinent in every Mediterranean MPAs and there is a marked lack of
MPA, an important distinction should be drawn between homogeneity in the little information that is available (Richez
MPAs in wealthier areas belonging to industrialized coun- 1991; Badalamenti et al. 1998), with much of the existing
tries, or industrialized parts of countries, and those in information only available in unpublished reports.
developing countries, or underdeveloped areas of countries French MPAs have been investigated with an emphasis on
(West & Brechin 1991; Bersales 1996). The economic their economic value (Appendix 1), and a virtually exclusive
revenues from many MPAs may be more easily exploited by focus on tourist and diver use of the areas concerned (Bachet
the local community when the MPA is located in a more 1991; Richez 1991, 1992, 1993). Studies on MPAs in Spain
developed area than when it is in a less developed one. This take into account small-scale fishing (Bayle & Ramos 1993;
could be the case in, for example, the development of a diving Mas & Barcala 1997; Sanchez Lizaso & Giner in press) as well
centre, which, at least during the first few years, is managed as diver (Ramos 1992; Ribera 1992; Costa Brava Sub 1997)
by people from outside the MPA (Richez 1991; F. and tourist interests (Capellà et al. 1998; Pozo 1998), and
Badalamenti, personal observation 1994 & July 1999) who make reference to the conflict existing amongst resource
possess the skills and resources (specialist diving qualifica- users (Ramos et al. 1992; see also Appendix 1). The activities
tions, modern vessels, more advanced photographic permitted vary from one MPA to another (Table 3). In Italy,
equipment) to organize and direct the business. These two only 4 of the 16 MPAs are functional (Ronchi 1998). The
realities, developed and underdeveloped areas, should be remaining 12 have been instituted by law (Table 1) but
treated separately, and a strategy adopted which addresses as various problems, such as the lack of a managing body or the
much the social and cultural spheres as the economic objec- absence of a delimited protected area, have impeded their
tives (Dixon et al. 1993). realization (Appendix 1). The information available
If we look at the Mediterranean in this way, we must regards predominantly the history of MPA implementation.
acknowledge that it offers examples from all points along the In Greece, despite the large size of the MPA (Tables 1 &
scales between wealth and poverty, and between industriali- 2), the data available are few and fragmentary and focus
zation and underdevelopment. There is great variation in the chiefly on the protection of the monk seal Monachus
size of the areas protected, the levels of protection imposed monachus.
and the activities carried out in existing MPAs. Despite their French and Spanish MPAs are generally managed at a
shared history, the countries of the Mediterranean maintain regional-national level (i.e. by the national and regional
distinct social and cultural characteristics, with marked governments or authorities; see Appendix 1 and Table 1),
differences existing even within the same nation. Italy is while the Italian MPAs are the responsibility of local govern-
perhaps the best example, where the questione meridionale ments (i.e. councils and provinces). In a very few cases EU
(southern problem) has long been the object of debate (see Mediterranean MPAs are managed by non-governmental
Villari 1988 for a review). The disparity that has existed organizations (Table 1). Some Spanish MPAs are managed
throughout history between the north and south in their by a combination of national and regional authorities. This is
economic parameters and social customs has been high- the case with larger MPAs, where the regional government is
lighted in both ancient and more recent studies (Ghisleri responsible for the marine area up to a certain distance from
1906; Coletti 1976). the coast, after which the jurisdiction passes to a national
The issue of MPAs in the Mediterranean demands authority (Table 1). Information currently available on EU
specialized research on the part of the social sciences. In this Mediterranean MPAs is summarized in Appendix 1.
paper we review the few studies which exist on
Mediterranean MPAs, with special regard to those developed
Other MPAs: fishery reserves
within the European Union (EU), and assess the extent of the
need to consider cultural and socio-economic factors in their Other forms of protection of the marine environment, exclus-
establishment and management. ively aimed at restoring commercial fish species, go back to
the middle of the nineteenth century, when the French
administration introduced fishery reserves variously called
EU MPAs in the Mediterranean
établissements de pêche and cantonnements de pêche (Meinesz et
The history of Mediterranean EU MPAs is all recent. The al. 1983). Similar areas exist in Spain but are often referred to
first MPAs were established at the end of the 1970s in France as ‘paper reserves’(Ramos & McNeil 1984). In southern Italy,
(Meinesz et al. 1983), in the early 1980s in Spain (Ramos & large areas of sea were periodically closed to fishing between
McNeill 1994), in the middle of the 1980s in Greece (Eliniki the end of the nineteenth century and the first years of the
Etairia 1994) and between the end of the 1980s and the begin- twentieth (D’Ancona 1926). More recently, as a temporary