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Cultural and socio-economic factors in marine protected areas 115

dents and tourists. Amongst the residents, two sub-groups Regulation is thus essential. Outside of the Mediterranean,
will be considered, namely fishers and young people. various strategies have been proposed, including education
(Kaza 1995), enforcement of controls and entrance fees which
Resident fishers increase with the level of protection (Alder 1996), or a combi-
Fishers are probably amongst those most directly affected nation of the above (Lindenberg & Huber 1993; Davis &
when MPAs are established, especially in those localities Tisdell 1996). The effect of MPAs on individual tourists will
where a high degree of protection is instituted, for example in depend on the relationships which they have with the MPAs
cases where all activities are prohibited. The creation of as well as the type of activity they intend to carry out in the
MPAs results in a reduction in the size of fishing grounds, localities concerned. These visitors can be divided into two
causing legitimate resentment from fishers. broad categories, namely those who benefit (the ‘winners’)
A number of studies have demonstrated that in the long- and those adversely affected (the ‘losers’).
term, MPAs can cause overall increases in fish biomass The ‘winning’ tourists are especially the new visitors who
(Pipitone et al. 1996; Russ & Alcala 1996), and there is are attracted by publicity about MPAs and by the new facili-
evidence that fish move out across MPAs boundaries as the ties offered in and around the areas involved. They discover
biomass accumulates (Roberts 1997). However, it can prove a new environment and generally have no opportunity to
difficult to convince fishers of the positive effects of MPAs on make comparisons with the past. The arrival of these indi-
fisheries. Difficulty can also be encountered in convincing viduals is likely to be resented by ‘losers’. This new tourism,
members of the fishing community of the economic benefits together with all the recreational activities connected with it,
to be gained from diversifying their work activities. MPA should be regulated. Although tourism is believed to have a
tourism offers many ways of supplementing income, for lower impact than for example manufacturing industry, its
example by leading boat tours and fishing trips, producing excessive development is considered by many to have exerted
handicrafts, providing holiday accommodation and meals for negative effects on the benthic communities of MPAs if
tourists, and offering services such as tank refilling for divers. left uncontrolled (Sala et al. 1996; Harriot et al. 1997).
The responses given in a questionnaire distributed to the Particularly damaged are seagrass meadows (García Charton
inhabitants of the Egadi Islands in Sicily by a local association et al. 1993; Martinez et al. 1999), coelenterates and bryozoans
reveal the great wariness felt by local fishers towards the (Sala et al. 1996; Zabala et al. 1999) and intertidal assem-
institution of the local MPA (Appendix 1). blages (Kay & Little 1989). As many ‘winning’ tourists will
be very likely to fall into the category of mass tourism, they
Resident young people should be the focus of attention of MPA planners and
Young people can feel a strong identification with a site to managers, so that any potentially deleterious effects on the
which they have always enjoyed unlimited access. Being less environment, the economy and, ultimately, the resident
directly involved in the economic life of MPAs, they may be community can be avoided.
less aware of the benefits brought by the creation of MPAs and The ‘losers’ include habitual visitors who often have
are more likely to resent restrictions placed on their access. strong attachments to wilderness and related values. This
This group must be kept well-informed and encouraged to group may feel resentment at the restrictions placed on their
use MPAs in more compatible ways, whilst being made aware use of MPAs and towards new visitors. The former stand to
of the opportunities that MPAs can offer. Such opportunities lose not only physical space but any sense of tranquillity that
are many and include involvement with MPA management, originally attracted them. Such individuals will be forced to
diving centres, diving and snorkel guiding, tourist boat trips, change their use of the spaces involved and are likely to feel
hotels and hostels, conference centres, outdoor equipment discouraged from continuing to visit MPAs. In this group we
shops, local natural products, handicrafts, books, photog- include the recreational fishers who may find restrictions on
raphy, films and restaurants offering local cuisine. the use of hooks and other small gear unacceptable. Conflict
Educational activities such as sea-watching, nature trips and may arise between this group and environmentalists who
fieldwork courses can also be offered. It seems highly desir- object to the sport on ethical grounds.
able that local communities involve themselves in exploiting Recreational users must be encouraged to make their
the economic potential of MPAs. If they are unwilling to do voices heard and to involve themselves in the planning and
so, outsiders will move in and take over the task, causing ties realization of MPAs. This category of person is generally
between local communities and MPAs to be loosened. sensitive to the issues involved and may be especially recep-
tive to educational programmes; the imposition of
Tourists restrictions on the activities of such people may prove unnec-
In remote areas, tourism can be considered necessary for the essary (Alder 1996).
success of MPAs. The revenues from activities connected to
tourism can be vital for depressed economies (Richez 1991,
MPAs in accessible localities and the north
1993) but they can have negative impacts if, as has been shown
in several cases, either the biological or social carrying capac- There are few MPAs in accessible localities in the EU
ities of the areas involved are exceeded (Dixon et al. 1993). Mediterranean (Appendix 1). Amongst these we can include