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Cultural and socio-economic factors in marine protected areas 117

supported the implementation of additional MPAs further rounds of spending that raise incomes in other
(Ballantine 1991). After four years of protection of the Apo sectors. In some instances, tourism may have substantial
Marine Reserve in the Philippines, 11 out of 12 fishers effects on the national economy, as has been demonstrated
interviewed perceived their catch to have increased, and ten in certain south-east Asian countries. For example, from
years after protection all said that their catch had at least 1985 to 1992, countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the
doubled (Russ & Alcala 1996). When closure to trawling was Philippines, Singapore and Thailand increased their
effected in Shelburne Bay in the Great Barrier Area in New income from tourism by 57%, 22%, 5%, 35% and 35%
Zealand, fishers expressed the opinion that the closure was an respectively, with a global budget which varied from
imposition and should be removed. However, two years later, approximately US$4000 million to more than US$15 000
there were no negative reactions and a number of fishers million (Anon. 1993 in Wilkinson et al. 1994);
reported increased catches through fishing along the • yet there are recurring worries relating to the use of MPAs
boundary of the closed area and expressed a desire for more for tourism ends (Wilkinson et al. 1994). Diving activities
permanent closures (Shorthouse 1990). in particular are responsible for damaging benthic
communities (Harriot et al. 1997) and the danger exists
that over-exploitation of the economic resource which
What have we learnt?
tourism represents could jeopardize its future viability
Studies carried out in Mediterranean MPAs up to now have (Davis & Harriot 1996).
dealt mainly with their ecological aspects rather than the
social, political and economic implications (Richez 1991).
The Mediterranean experience
Despite the fact that MPAs have been in existence in one
form or another for some time in the Mediterranean Similar conclusions can be drawn for the Mediterranean
(Boudouresque 1994), few data are available (Ramos 1991a) (Appendix 1). General increases in tourist activities (Ribera
and few studies have been carried out to assess the socio- 1991, 1992; Richez 1991, 1992, 1993; Capellà et al. 1998) and
economic aspects connected to protection (Badalamenti et al. in the abundance of larger fish species are evident in MPAs
1998). Moreover, most of these studies contain limited and in the Mediterranean. An increase in the biomass of exploited
qualitative analyses or are too short term. species in protected areas might produce greater yields for
fisheries under certain conditions, but data to support this are
scarce (Mas & Barcala 1997). Significant increase in demersal
The experience outside the Mediterranean
biomass has been observed in areas where a trawling ban
From studies conducted outside the Mediterranean four has been in place for a number of years (Pipitone et al.
points can be made which could aid assessment of the socio- 1996). Data also show a large increase in the number of visi-
economic impacts of MPAs: tors, divers and vessels using MPAs (Ribera 1991). An
impact on natural communities has, however, been noted,
• it is important to take into account the human component especially on benthic assemblages (Sala et al. 1996; Zabala
of MPAs and those areas directly or indirectly influenced 1996), as a result of diving, mooring and the feeding of large
by them (Fiske 1992). Keeping local communities fish by divers.
informed and encouraging them to participate throughout Emphasis has been given in only a few MPAs to
all the stages of planning, establishing and managing promoting public awareness and collaboration (Appendix 1).
MPAs contributes substantially to the likelihood of long- This can be especially important where artisanal fishing
term success of the initiative; communities are present and/or the special protection of
• MPAs can lead to a recovery in the productive potential of animal species is sought, as in the case of the monk seal M.
fishery resources. Increases in the number and biomass of monachus (Dikou 1995).
many species which occur in MPAs (Buxton & Smale
1989; Cole et al. 1990; Polunin & Roberts 1993) and
The need to consider cultural and socio-economic
fishery resources will in many cases spill over into
factors
surrounding areas (Rowley 1994; Russ & Alcala 1996;
Watson et al. 1996). The mechanisms underlying the While many might regard the conservation of nature as the
process of stock replenishment are not well understood fundamental starting point, neglecting the sociocultural and
(Roberts & Polunin 1991), but MPAs have been identified socio-economic aspects can lead to only a partial comprehen-
as an important tool in the precautionary management of sion of MPAs as a whole and often to poor local consensus, if
fishery resources (Clark 1996); not hostility. The shortage of studies to justify MPAs from
• MPAs will often have significant impacts on the local and an economic point of view could be one of the reasons for the
regional economy, typically as a result of expenditure small numbers of MPAs and of the slow pace at which they
derived from tourism and especially from diving-related are established. To evaluate in terms of economic return
activities. This in turn may generate multiplier effects, so the role played by MPAs in safeguarding and increasing
that initial expenditure in the tourist industry creates biodiversity is a task which presents no small difficulty