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114 F. Badalamenti et al.

Figure 1 Location of the EU Mediterranean marine protected areas (MPAs), fishery reserves excluded. Numbers correspond
to MPAs as listed in Table 1.

the degree of isolation, the size of the resident human popu- fishing, the working of primary resources and some tourism
lation and the culture and traditions of the latter (Arculeo et rather than on industrial production or the tertiary sector. In
al. 1994; Riggio 1994). For schematic purposes, but also all of these areas, tourism is seen as both a potential and a
because of the importance of socio-cultural differences (Fiske fundamental source of income, although its excessive growth
1992), we will separate the Mediterranean MPAs located in (Ribera 1991; Boudouresque & Ribera 1993) and its impact
remote areas (generally small islands) from those located near on the environment (García Charton et al. 1993; Sala et al.
urban areas (Fig. 1). Such a distinction distinguishes the 1996; Zabala 1996; Martínez et al. 1999) have become a cause
MPAs of the Mediterranean into zones located in the gener- for concern (Appendix 1).
ally wealthy and industrialized north from those located in The problem is therefore one of safeguarding not only the
the more depressed and less developed south. environment but also the cultural heritage of the human
inhabitants, whilst still allowing for economic development
(West 1991). This does not mean that the protection of the
MPAs in isolated places and the south
human aspects should be romanticized or that the natural
Many of the Mediterranean MPAs in the EU are found in the economic and cultural development of the resident population
southern part of their respective countries and in many cases be impeded. Rather, the cultural resources of the area must be
these fall into areas defined by the EU as economically acknowledged and enhanced. To concentrate exclusively on
depressed (Fig. 1, Tables 1 & 2). Ten of the 16 designated the income-generating effects of a MPA is risky. Research
MPAs in Italy are located in the southern part of the country or carried out on areas outside the Mediterranean has revealed
in more depressed areas (Cognetti 1989, 1991). An analogous the importance of guarding against the temptation to exploit
proportion can be found in the list of potential new MPAs in tourism without setting limits, and of reflecting on the
Italy. Greece is another area considered to be economically consequences for both the environment and the resident
depressed. Most of the Spanish MPAs are located in the human population (Wilkinson et al. 1994; Davis & Tisdell
southern part of the country, again a depressed area (Ramos & 1995).
McNeill 1994), whilst the most extensive French MPAs are in As we have already highlighted, the social and cultural
Corsica, which is also economically deprived (Boudouresque components and the economy of the Mediterranean areas
1994). To these considerations we can add the fact that over destined to become MPAs have rarely attracted the interest of
half the Mediterranean MPAs of the EU are located around specialists (Badalamenti et al. 1998; Richez 1991). This is due
islands (Cognetti 1989, 1991; Augier 1991; Ramos & McNeill both to the fact that the establishment of MPAs has proceeded
1994). more rapidly than have the relevant economic and sociological
Southern areas and smaller islands share common charac- studies (Farrow 1996), and to the young age of most of the
teristics with respect to both the level of economic MPAs. For the remote areas and, more generally, the rural
development and their socio-cultural aspects, allowing us to and less developed areas of the Mediterranean, we are left to
put forward a number of generalizations. Apart from being speculate as to the impact of MPAs. Here we will examine the
generally depressed, the economies are based on agriculture, effects on two of the groups directly involved, namely resi-