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Environmental Conservation 27 (2): 110–125 © 2000 Foundation for Environmental Conservation

Cultural and socio-economic impacts of Mediterranean marine protected
areas

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F. BADALAMENTI* , A. A. RAMOS , E. VOULTSIADOU , J.L. SÁNCHEZ LIZASO ,
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G. D’ANNA ,C. PIPITONE , J. MAS , J.A. RUIZ FERNANDEZ , D. WHITMARSH AND
S. RIGGIO 6
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1 Laboratory of Marine Biology IRMA – CNR, Via G. Da Verrazzano, 17-91014 Castellammare del Golfo (TP), Italy, Department of
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Environmental Sciences and Natural Resources, University of Alicante, Spain, Department of Zoology, University of Thessaloniki, Greece, IEO,
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Centro Oceanográfico, Murcia, Spain, CEMARE, University of Portsmouth, UK and Department of Animal Biology, University of Palermo,
Italy
Date submitted: 2 July 1999 Date accepted: 23 February 2000
Summary Keywords: marine protected areas, marine reserves, socio-
economic aspects, tourism, diving, fisheries, Mediterranean
Marine protected areas (MPAs) may be important for
sea
protecting the marine environment, but they may also
have substantial socio-cultural impacts about which
very little is currently known, or acknowledged. In the Introduction
Mediterranean, few data are available on the socio-
economic consequences of MPAs. The present study Marine protected areas (MPAs) are being proposed at an
reviews the existing data on MPAs in Spain, France, increasing rate in many parts of the world today (Dixon et al.
Italy and Greece. A general increase in tourist activi- 1993; Ballantine 1995; Agardy 1997). The main purpose of
ties in Mediterranean MPAs is evident, as are MPAs is to safeguard nature (Riggio 1989; Agardy 1994)
increases in the abundances of larger fish species, through the protection of species (Panou et al. 1993; Stoner
although there are no data indicating yields for fish- 1996), threatened environments (Garcia Rubies & Zabala
eries increase adjacent to MPAs. A large increase in the 1990; Boudouresque & Ribera 1993) and the biodiversity
number of divers and vessels using MPAs has already which the latter support. However, the role of MPAs now
had impacts on natural benthic communities as a goes beyond these aims (Brunckhorst & Bridgewater 1995) as
result of diver damage, mooring and the feeding of they can provide economically valuable activities (Farrow
large fish by divers. Emphasis has been given in only a 1996) and interact with human beings and their institutions
few MPAs to promoting public awareness of these (Caldecott 1996). Tourism (Agardy 1993; Davis & Harriot
impacts. Although the conservation of nature should 1996; Davis & Tisdell 1996), the replenishment of fisheries
be considered the fundamental objective of MPAs, and the protection of the natural resource bases of fisheries
neglecting their social, cultural and economic impacts such as breeding (Harmelin et al. 1995), nursery and recruit-
has at times led to poor local consensus, if not ment habitats (Alcala & Russ 1990; Bohnsack 1990; Bennett
hostility. We believe that planning and managing & Attwood 1991; Fairweather 1991; Jones et al. 1992; Agardy
MPAs should be conducted on a multidisciplinary 1994; Clark 1996; McClanahan & Kaunda-Arara 1996;
basis. Nonetheless, no single model can be considered Russ & Alcala 1996), certainly provide the most important
valid for the whole Mediterranean. The very variable economic revenues to be derived from MPAs. MPAs
characteristics of coastal areas, from those of small may also possess economic value which is quite unrelated to
uninhabited islands to those of cities, require different any actual expenditure associated with their use, a situation
weightings to be assigned for each factor in order to more likely to occur where the area protected is unique and
achieve a durable equilibrium and realize the original people may be willing to pay for its preservation because
objectives of each MPA. Only with such flexibility of of so-called ‘existence’ and ‘bequest’ motives. In these
management will it be possible to reach a greater circumstances, MPAs may be said to have a passive use value
understanding of the MPA system and create a lasting and many attempts have been made to quantify this
consensus in favour of conservation, a consensus (Harpman et al. 1993; Jones 1994; Farrow 1996; Anderson
which would mean an overwhelming majority of 1998).
people actively avoiding damaging nature and MPAs have social impacts on local communities, which
preventing others from doing so. can accept (Salm & Clark 1984; Andersson & Ngazi 1995) or
reject (Fiske 1992) the MPA idea, but should in any case be
* Correspondence: Dr Fabio Badalamenti Tel: 39 0924 35013 involved in the planning and realization of MPA projects
Fax: 39 0924 35084 e-mail fbadala@tin.it (Wells & White 1995; Bersales 1996) from a very early stage